# STRUCTURE – Organize content

STRUCTURE covers all aspects of organizing the content of reports and presentations.

_Organizing the content_ means that reports and presentations follow a logical
structure forming a convincing storyline.

This chapter covers using consistent elements, building non-overlapping elements,
building collectively exhaustive elements, building hierarchical structures, and
visualizing their structure properly.

1. [Use consistent elements](#st-1-use-consistent-elements)
2. [Build non-overlapping elements](#st-2-build-non-overlapping-elements)
3. [Build collectively exhaustive elements](#st-3-build-collectively-exhaustive-elements)
4. [Build hierarchical structures](#st-4-build-hierarchical-structures)
5. [Visualize structure](#st-5-visualize-structure)

## ST 1 Use consistent elements

Listings and groupings of any kind of elements (items, terms, pictures, symbols,
etc.) used to organize content in charts, tables, and texts should contain
consistent elements only. This pertains for example to items, statements,
wordings, and the appearance of symbols and pictures.

## ST 1.1 Use consistent items

![Figure ST 1.1: Use consistent items](img/st-1.1.png)

Items in a group should be of the same type, i.e. consistent. Consistent
items can be different types of cars, houses, traffic signs, or – as
shown in Figure ST 1.1, on the right hand side – different national
flags representing the corresponding nations. The left hand side of this
figure includes other types of items besides national flags, destroying
the consistency.

## ST 1.2 Use consistent types of statements

![Figure ST 1.2: Use consistent types of statements](img/st-1.2.png)

A list of statements will be easier to understand if all statements are
of the same type. The right hand side of Figure ST 1.2 shows four
suggestions. By contrast, on the left-hand side of this figure the third
statement is a detection, not a suggestion.

## ST 1.3 Use consistent wording

![Figure ST 1.3: Use consistent wording](img/st-1.3.png)

Structure all phrases – especially in listed arrangements – in a
grammatically consistent manner to facilitate quicker understanding. The
right hand side of Figure ST 1.3 shows a group of four consistent
suggestions, an imperative verb paired with a noun. By contrast, on the
left hand side of this figure the second suggestion uses verbal
substantive instead of an imperative.

## ST 1.4 Use consistent visualizations

![Figure ST 1.4: Use consistent visualizations](img/st-1.4.png)

Visualizations such as symbols and pictures that are uniform in respect
to their layouts, colors, forms, fonts, etc. – especially in listed
arrangements – facilitate faster and easier comprehension.

## ST 2 Build non-overlapping elements

Elements belonging to a group should not overlap, i.e. they should be disjoint or
mutually exclusive. This concerns practical applications such as report
structures, business measures, or structure dimensions.

## ST 2.1 Build non-overlapping report structures

![Figure ST 2.1: Build non-overlapping report structures](img/st-2.1.png)

Structure reports and presentations in such a way that the parts,
chapters, sections, and paragraphs do not overlap. They should not cover
the same aspects.

In Figure ST 2.1, on the left hand side, the following chapters of a
project description overlap:

-   expenses and costs
-   schedule, steps, milestones, and calendar
-   objective, results, and achievements

At first glance, the six terms on the right hand side of this figure have
no overlap in their logical structure. Of course, a relationship exists
between the _cost_, the _results_, and the
_schedule_ of a project, but in regards to the content of the
chapters this is not an overlap.

## ST 2.2 Build non-overlapping business measures

![Figure ST 2.2: Build non-overlapping business measures](img/st-2.2.png)

Structure a group of business measures in lists or calculations in a way
they do not overlap, i.e. business measures on one hierarchical level
should be disjoint or mutually exclusive.

Looking at Figure ST 2.2, on the left hand side, the following business
measures overlap

-   _material costs_ and _costs of goods sold_
-   _depreciation_ and _fixed costs_

The calculation scheme on the right hand side has been cleaned up.

## ST 2.3 Build non-overlapping structure dimensions

![Figure ST 2.3: Build non-overlapping structure dimensions](img/st-2.3.png)

The elements of the _structure dimensions_ used in reports and presentations should not overlap, i.e.
the elements of a structure dimension should be disjoint or mutually
exclusive.

Looking at Figure ST 2.3 on the left hand side, the regions _Norway,
Sweden, Denmark,_ and _Finland_ overlap with _Scandinavia_.

## ST 3 Build collectively exhaustive elements

A list of elements is considered to be exhaustive when they cover all aspects of
a superordinate topic. For example, dividing _Europe_ into
_Germany_, _Austria_, _Switzerland_, and _Belgium_
is not exhaustive because other countries also belong to Europe.

Structures with mutually exclusive (ME) and collectively exhaustive (CE) elements
are known as MECE structures.

## ST 3.1 Build exhaustive arguments

![Figure ST 3.1: Build exhaustive arguments](img/st-3.1.png)

If some important arguments relating to a specific question are left out,
the given answer will not be convincing.

Looking at Figure ST 3.1 on the left hand side the option “_old
products, new location_” is missing.

## ST 3.2 Build exhaustive structures in charts and tables

![Figure ST 3.2: Build exhaustive structures in charts and tables](img/st-3.2.png)

The elements of structures presented in charts and tables should also be
exhaustive, in other words, adding up to one hundred percent.

In many practical applications of this kind, adding a remainder element
(“rest of…”) helps to conform to this rule.

## ST 4 Build hierarchical structures

Give reports and presentations a hierarchical structure whenever possible,
resulting in faster comprehension and simplified searching. These rules help to
write and present a good storyline.

## ST 4.1 Use deductive reasoning

![Figure ST 4.1: Use deductive reasoning](img/st-4.1.png)

Exhibiting deductive reasoning (_logical flow_) for a given
message aids in _building_ hierarchical structures. _Logical
flows_ always answer the question “why” following the key
message. They begin with a statement (all men are mortal), continue with
a comment (Socrates is a man), and resolve with a conclusion (Socrates
is mortal) culminating in the message (Socrates will die).

Deductive reasoning can be best applied in controversial discussions for
arguing and demonstrating need for action. However, it forces the
readers or the audience to reproduce the deduction and the whole
argumentation can collapse if any statements are questionable.

## ST 4.2 Use inductive reasoning

![Figure ST 4.2: Use inductive reasoning](img/st-4.2.png)

Exhibiting _inductive_ reasoning (_logical group_) for a
given message aids in understanding hierarchical structures. _Logical
groups_ are homogenous, non-overlapping, and collectively
exhaustive arguments culminating in a message. This results in a
powerful argumentation that satisfies the addressees need for an easily
comprehensible logical structure.

## ST 5 Visualize structure

Having organized the arguments hierarchically, visualize this structure in order
to make the storyline transparent.

## ST 5.1 Visualize structure in reports

![Figure ST 5.1: Visualize structure in reports](img/st-5.1.png)

For easier understanding, underscore the logical structure of reports and
presentations with visual aids (e.g. outlines, dashboards, summaries).
Figure ST 5.1 illustrates this rule showing binder tabs on the right
hand side.

## ST 5.2 Visualize structure in tables

![Figure ST 5.2: Visualize structure in tables](img/st-5.2.png)

Design tables in such a manner that their hierarchical structure can be
recognized in both the columns as well as the rows.

The right hand side of Figure ST 5.2 shows three hierarchical levels of
rows in a table. The base level shows cities, the first summary shows
regions, and the second summary shows the country.

## ST 5.3 Visualize structure in notes

![Figure ST 5.3: Visualize structure in notes](img/st-5.3.png)

Notes are also easier to understand when their structure is shown clearly
(see Figure ST 5.3).

[← Convey a message](01-say.md) | [Choose proper visualization →](04-express.md)